Wireless Technologies

Federal Effort to Secure Smart Grids

Tony Flick , Justin Morehouse , in Securing the Smart Grid, 2011

Wireless Network Security

Numerous wireless technologies will be used in smart grid deployments to facilitate the constant communication between the different smart grid entities. Wireless technologies have been plagued by security vulnerabilities in the past and this will most likely continue with wireless technologies used in smart grids. As a result, the INL document recommends that more research needs to be performed on the particular wireless networks that will be used in smart grids. 8 Chapter 7, "Attacking the Utility Companies," and Chapter 12, "Attacking Smart Meters," contain more information on the wireless security issues of smart grids.

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Wireless and mobile technologies and protocols and their performance evaluation

Salima Samaoui , ... Wahida Mansouri , in Modeling and Simulation of Computer Networks and Systems, 2015

7 Conclusion

Wireless and mobile technologies have become a very critical part of our everyday life. Their present development is the outcome of various standardizations. In this chapter, we review the various generations of mobile wireless technology, their requirements, portals, performance, architecture, multiplexing methods, advantages and limits of one generation over another. Our review reveals that wireless devices continue to change rapidly. In fact, 5G is the name used in several research papers and specifications to refer to the next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards beyond the 4G standards. The new coming 5G technology will provide a higher peak data rate and much greater reliability than its predecessors.

We also investigate major simulation tools that are used to evaluate the performance of wireless networks, including some examples. We concluded the chapter by presenting two case studies on the use of modeling and simulation to predict the performance of wireless networks: an IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN and adaptive ABR voice over ATM network.

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Personal Information Base Case Study

In Bluetooth Application Developer's Guide, 2002

Summary

This case study has looked at a device that does not exist today, but that can be created with current technology. Already we are seeing PDAs being used to manage personal appointments as well as information on the move. It is a logical step for large institutions, such as hospitals, to begin to use similar technology to manage their information systems.

Bluetooth wireless technology suits the requirements of a Personal Information Base (PIB) for many reasons:

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The chips/chip sets and associated components are low cost.

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Bluetooth modules typically have a small form factor making them suitable for incorporation in handheld/mobile devices.

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Bluetooth wireless technology is low power, making it suitable for devices which need to run on batteries.

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The technology is available in a wide range of devices (PDAs, phones, laptops) providing a variety of candidates for Data Access Terminals.

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The ISM band used for Bluetooth radio links is available license-free worldwide.

While the PIB system is not safety-critical in itself, it does handle data that may be critical to medical treatment. The integrity and security of that data is paramount. Bluetooth links may introduce errors, but the application can easily compensate by backing up data, and by implementing application level error checks on records. Security of the radio link is also important. This is provided by authenticating communicating devices, and encrypting medical records on air. Finally, password access can protect the PIBs contents should the device itself fall into the wrong hands.

The Bluetooth specifications provide a variety of profiles that lay out rules for using the Bluetooth protocol stack for particular end-user applications. For a Personal Information Base, the Object Push Profile can be used to exchange virtual business cards (vCards), which publicly identify a PIB's owner. The File Transfer Profile can be used to exchange medical records.

The Object Push and File Transfer Profiles both rest on the Generic Object Exchange Profile, which uses the Infrared Data Association's OBEX protocol to exchange data objects. This, in turn, relies on the Serial Port Profile, which uses a modified version of the ETSI TS07.10 specification to emulate serial ports over a radio link (TS07.10 is also used by GSM cellular systems to emulate serial ports). Finally, the Generic Access Profile provides generic procedures related to discovering Bluetooth devices, security levels, and parameters accessible at the user interface.

By using Bluetooth profiles, the PIB application can use standard protocol stacks and features; this enables applications to be easily integrated with existing Bluetooth protocol stacks.

We have looked at a Personal Information Base in a medical context, but many of the elements of this case study are equally applicable to other data exchange applications. As input/output devices come down in price, we are likely to see devices such as the Personal Information Base described in this chapter appearing in more and more contexts.

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Feeling Bluetooth

Paul Braeckel , in Advances in Computers, 2011

Abstract

Wireless technologies are ubiquitous and an essential aspect in modern computing and mobile devices. In particular, Bluetooth (BT), if not only from its namesake, has captured end-user attention and acceptance; however, few possess familiarity with it in much depth aside from the obligatory accessory add-on when purchasing a new mobile phone. This article serves as both an advanced-level continuous-read self-study and a quick reference to BT technologies by presenting its history concisely, technical specifications, notable exploitations, audit utilities, and securing recommendations. One will notice similarities in comparison to other wireless network technologies, such as Wi-Fi (802.11). Briefly, BT is a device‐ independent open specification wireless networking technology, overseen by the BT Special Interest Group (SIG), which targets mobile computing and available to devices on a global scale. The specifications that define the BT protocols intend the technology for connectivity and communications within Personal Area Networks (PANs). BT is the amalgamation of a hardware description, an application framework, and interoperability requirements, with the main purposes of replacing cables, creating ad hoc networks, and establishing data/voice connectivity.

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Precision farming and IoT case studies across the world

Guido Fastellini , ... Eiji Morimoto , in Agricultural Internet of Things and Decision Support for Precision Smart Farming, 2020

7.4.2.5.1 Smart sensor nodes

Wireless technology was used for the communication between the nodes. Specifically, the system utilizes a particular type of wireless network, which is called mesh. The node data passed from one node to the other through the RF (radio frequency) transmitter, which plays the role of a repeater. If any of the nodes stops transmitting or receiving or even if signal pathways become blocked, the operating software reconfigures signal routes to maintain data acquisition from the network (Fig. 7.4.5). The nodes' electronic boards used in the project were powered with 2   ×   1.5   V alkaline batteries, which last for a growing season (>150 days). Furthermore, to optimize the battery life, the boards were programmed to set themselves in a low-current sleep mode when not transmitting data.

Figure 7.4.5. The mesh network within the field. The red points present the real location of each node and the red triangle the base station. Each node communicates with the other nodes to make sure that the information of each node will arrive to the base station.

Sixteen nodes were installed totally in the field (Fig. 7.4.5). Rain gages were placed next to the nodes as well to record the amount of irrigation in every irrigation event. More nodes were installed in the VRI strips because the farmer was irrigating the uniform strips with the same way as he was irrigating the field in the previous years. Thus, five nodes were installed in each VRI strip and three in the uniform strips. In addition, at least one UGA SSA node was installed in every zone depending on the size of the zone and its variability. When there were more than two nodes in one zone, then the soil moisture data were averaged for each zone. The location of the nodes was determined by using the same variables used for the delineation of the zones. Specifically each variable was classified into three classes using the quantile classification method. The first class included the high values of the variables, the middle class the medium values and the lower class the lowest values of the variables. The classification of each variable in three classes helped to identify patterns within the fields where the variables have high, low and medium values. In addition, the flow of water in the field was also taken under consideration. Nodes were installed at areas where the flow of water was not high because areas with high water flow drain out fast or appear to be wet for longer time leading to unreliable soil moisture conditions.

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Introduction to Wireless Networking, Wardriving, and Kismet

Frank Thornton , in Kismet Hacking, 2008

Inventing Cell Phones

Wireless technology is based on the car-mounted police radios of the 1920s. Mobile telephone service became available to private customers in the 1940s. In 1947, Southwestern Bell and AT&T launched the first commercial mobile phone service in St. Louis, Missouri, but the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) limited the amount of frequencies available, which made possible only 23 simultaneous phone conversations available within a service area (the mobile phones offered only six channels with a 60 kHz spacing between them). Unfortunately, that spacing schema led to very poor sound quality due to cross-channel interference, much like the cross talk on wireline phones. The original public wireless systems generally used single high-powered transmitters to cover the entire coverage area. In order to utilize the precious frequencies allotted to them, AT&T developed an idea to replace the single high-powered transmitter approach with several smaller and lower-powered transmitters strategically placed throughout the metropolitan area; calls would switch between transmitters as they needed a stronger signal. Although this method of handling calls certainly eased some of the problems, it did not eliminate the problem altogether. In fact, the problem of too few voice channels plagued the wireless phone industry for several years.

The problem was that demand always seemed to exceed supply. Since the FCC refused to allocate more frequencies for mobile wireless use, waiting lists became AT&T's temporary solution as the company strove for the technological advances necessary to accommodate everyone. For example, in 1976, there were less than 600 mobile phone customers in New York City, but there were over 3500 people on waiting lists. Across the United States at that time, there were nearly 45,000 subscribers, but there were still another 20,000 people on waiting lists as much as ten years long. Compare this situation to today's, in which providers give away free phones and thousands of minutes just to gain a subscriber.

Cellular technology has come a long way. The term cellular describes how each geographic region of coverage is broken up into cells. Within each of these cells is a radio transmitter and control equipment. Early cellular transmission operated at 800 MHz on analog signals, which are sent on a continuous wave. When a customer makes a call, the first signal sent identifies the caller as a customer, verifies that he or she is a customer of the service, and finds a free channel for the call. The mobile phone user has a wireless phone that in connection with the cellular tower and base station, handles the calls, their connection and handoff, and the control functions of the wireless phone.

Personal communications services (PCS), which operates at 1850 MHz, followed years later. PCS refers to the services that a given carrier has available to be bundled together for the user. Services like messaging, paging, and voicemail are all part of the PCS environment. Sprint is the major carrier that typically is associated with PCS. Some cellular providers began looking into digital technology (digital signals are basically encoded voice delivered by bit streams). Some providers are using digital signals to send not only voice, but also data. Other advantages include more power of the frequency or bandwidth, and less chance of corruption per call. Coverage is based on three technologies: Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM).

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Wireless

Timothy Stapko , in Practical Embedded Security, 2008

Cellular Technologies

Cellular wireless technologies were created for mobile telephone communications but, like their wired counterparts, have diversified and evolved into general-purpose communications technologies. A few technologies are of interest when discussing the connection between cellular networks and digital communications, including GSM 4 (Global System for Mobile communications, the base technology for a majority of cellular communications) and GPRS 5 (General Packet Radio Service), which adds data transfer capabilities to GSM and allows for services like text messaging and data communications. There are numerous other cellular wireless technologies, but we will keep our discussion to GPRS/GSM because of its widespread use.

Figure 1. Comparison of Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Bluetooth, and Celluar/GSM

One of the largest barriers to using cellular technologies for inexpensive wireless communications (in our case, for embedded control applications) is that cellular networks are difficult to get on to, usually requiring a partnership with the organization that owns the network. For a lot of applications, the cost of this may not be practical. However, there do exist companies that do that part for you, and you can buy GPRS/GSM modems that will allow your application to be connected to a cellular network (the modem vendor will usually have a partnership with at least one or two carriers).

The closed nature of cellular networks makes security a difficult problem. The GSM and GPRS technologies have security built into their specifications, but the methods used are not the best. Poor encryption algorithms and questionable security design considerations mean that cellular communications may not be as secure as they could be. If you are going to use GPRS/GSM as a communications medium, it is recommended that you use a higher-level security protocol (SSL is a good choice) on top of the communications channel.

Cellular networking allows for a couple of features that are interesting for embedded applications. The networks are available nearly everywhere, so a cellular-enabled device would have a network connection nearly anywhere, and cellular networks are very good at providing roaming connections, so devices can move around. However, for a large number of embedded control applications, cellular technology is probably overkill. If the embedded device is in a warehouse somewhere and does not move around too much, but needs wireless connectivity, since wires are difficult to run, cellular is probably too slow (dial-up modem speeds are normal) or expensive. For this reason, we leave our discussion of cellular technologies and look at some more practical wireless technologies for limited-resource applications (and as a bonus, they all happen to be generally easier to secure than GPRS/GSM).

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Introduction

C. Bala Kumar , ... Timothy J. Thompson , in Bluetooth Application Programming with the Java APIs, 2004

1.2 What Is Bluetooth Wireless Technology?

Bluetooth wireless technology is an open specification for a low-cost, low-power, short-range radio technology for ad hoc wireless communication of voice and data anywhere in the world. Let's examine each of these attributes:

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An open specification means that the specification is publicly available and royalty free.

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Short-range radio technology means devices can communicate over the air using radio waves at a distance of 10 meters (m). With higher transmission power the range increases to approximately 100   m.

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Because communication is within a short range, the radios are low power and are suited for portable, battery-operated devices.

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Bluetooth wireless technology supports both voice and data, allowing devices to communicate either type of content.

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Bluetooth wireless technology works anywhere in the world because it operates at 2.4   GHz in the globally available, license-free, industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band.

The ISM frequency band is available for general use by ISM applications, hence several other devices (e.g., WLAN, cordless phones, microwave ovens) operate in this band. Bluetooth wireless technology is designed to be very robust in the face of interference from other devices.

1.2.1 History of Bluetooth Wireless Technology

The origins of Bluetooth communications started in 1994, when Ericsson began a study to find alternatives to connecting mobile phones to its accessories. The engineers looked at a low-power and low-cost radio interface to eliminate cables between the devices. But the engineers also realized that for the technology to be successful it has to be an open standard and not a proprietary one. In early 1998, Ericsson joined Intel, International Business Machines (IBM), Nokia, and Toshiba and formed the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) to focus on developing an open specification for Bluetooth wireless technology. The original companies, known as promoter companies, publicly announced the global Bluetooth SIG in May 1998 and invited other companies to join the Bluetooth SIG as Bluetooth adopters in return for a commitment to support the Bluetooth specification. In July 1999, the Bluetooth SIG published version 1.0 of the Bluetooth specification. In December 1999, four new promoter companies—3Com, Agere, Microsoft, and Motorola—joined the Bluetooth SIG.

Since then, the awareness of Bluetooth wireless technology has increased, and many other companies have joined the Bluetooth SIG as adopters, which gives them a royalty-free license to produce Bluetooth-enabled products. Adopter companies also have early access to specifications and the ability to comment on them. Interest in the Bluetooth SIG has grown, and there are currently more than 2000 member companies. These companies represent academia and a variety of industries.

Why is this technology called Bluetooth wireless technology? It was named after a Danish Viking king, Harald Blåtand, who ruled circa A.D. 940–981. Blåtand loosely translates to "blue tooth." During his reign, King Harald Blåtand is supposed to have united and controlled Denmark and Norway. Because this new radio technology was expected to unify the telecommunication and computing industries, it seemed fitting to name it after King Harald. A part-time historian on the team proposed Bluetooth as the internal code name. Because the Bluetooth SIG marketing team could not come up with a better name that was not already trademarked, the name stuck.

Figure 1.1. Bluetooth SIG timeline.

1.2.2 Bluetooth Vision

Bluetooth wireless technology was originally developed as a cable replacement technology for connecting devices such as mobile phone handsets, headsets, and portable computers with each other (Figure 1.2). However, wireless connectivity between fixed and mobile devices enables many other usage scenarios other than cable replacement. By enabling wireless links and communication between devices, a shortrange wireless network was created that gave rise to the notion of a personal area network (PAN). Designed as an inexpensive wireless networking system for all classes of portable devices, Bluetooth devices have the capability to form ad hoc networks. These networks should enable easy and convenient connections to printers, Internet access points, and personal devices at work and at home.

Figure 1.2. Bluetooth use cases.

There are so many usage scenarios for Bluetooth wireless technology that the technology will likely be put to wide use. Let's look at a couple of the usage models.

The three-in-one phone usage model allows a mobile telephone to be used as a cellular phone in the normal manner, as a cordless phone that connects to a voice access point (e.g., cordless base station), and as an intercom or "walkie-talkie" for direct communication with another device. The cordless telephony and the intercom features use Bluetooth wireless technology.

The second use case is wireless telematics. Assume that a user who is talking on a cell phone approaches his or her automobile but wants to continue the phone conversation in the hands-free mode. Using Bluetooth communication the user can continue the phone conversation using the microphone and speakers equipped in the dashboard of the automobile.

Another use case is the instant post card, whereby a user (on vacation, for example) with a digital camera transmits a photo via a data access point that could be a mobile phone or a local area network (LAN) access point. Similar use cases include automatic synchronization, business card exchange, hotel and airline check-in, electronic ticketing, and wireless games.

1.2.3 Bluetooth Specification

The Bluetooth specification is the result of cooperation by many companies under the Bluetooth SIG umbrella. The specification defines the over-the-air behavior to ensure compatibility of Bluetooth devices from different vendors. It defines the complete system from the radio up to the application level, including the software stack. The specification is very lengthy because of the breadth of topics it covers. At the highest level, the specification (version 1.1) is split into two volumes (in version 1.2 they are split into several subvolumes). Volume 1 [1] is the core specification and describes the protocol stack and related items such as testing and qualification. The Bluetooth protocol stack is defined as a series of layers somewhat analogous to the familiar Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) [2] standard reference for communication protocol stacks. Each layer of the protocol stack represents a different protocol and is separately described in the core specification.

The Bluetooth profiles are described in volume 2 of the Bluetooth version 1.1 specification [3]. Bluetooth profiles, essentially usage models, describe how applications are to use the Bluetooth stack. A Bluetooth profile is a set of capabilities of the protocol layers that represent a default solution for a usage model. Bluetooth profiles are the basis of Bluetooth protocol stack qualification, and any new implementations of a Bluetooth profile have to go through the qualification process described herein. The specification and profiles continue to evolve as new areas are identified in which Bluetooth wireless technology can be used. Bluetooth protocols and profiles are discussed in detail in the next section. For a detailed description of Bluetooth wireless technology, see books by Miller [4] and Bray [5] and their colleagues.

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Exploring the Foundations of Bluetooth

In Bluetooth Application Developer's Guide, 2002

Introduction

Bluetooth wireless technology differs from wired connections in many ways. Some differences are obvious immediately: when you are not tied to a device by a cable, you have to find it and check if it is the device you think it is before you connect to it. Other differences are more subtle: you may have to cope with interference, or with the link degrading and dying as devices move out of range.

If you're used to developing applications for static wired environments, all of this may sound daunting, but don't worry—there are simple well-defined procedures for coping with the complexity of Bluetooth connections. This chapter will take you through those procedures step by step, along the way explaining the pitfalls and how to avoid them.

We will start with a review of the protocol stack, and then look at some of the basic requirements of wireless communications the stack cannot hide: finding nearby devices, connecting to them, discovering what services they can provide, and then using those services.

You need to know the basic structure of the Bluetooth protocol stack before reading this chapter.

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Wireless Networks

Syed V. Ahamed , in Intelligent Networks, 2013

6.8.1 Traditional Landline Applications

The wireless technologies have exerted a steady influence in traditional landline local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wide area networks (WANs). For example, in LAN applications, spread spectrum, infrared, CT2, CT3, personal communication networks, RF identification systems, and narrow-band radio can all carry voice/data to some extent or another. The spread spectrum technologies for LANs have been delivered up to 300  kbps in hilly terrain. For time division multiple access (TDMA), burst rates up to 8   Mbps may also be sustained in indoor settings over 60–100   ft. The bit rate for most LANs is at 4, 10, or 16   Mbps, or much higher rates for optical networks. For MAN applications, a variety of networks exists at very low rates compared to fiber rates, including cellular phones, conventional radio, trunked radio, FM sideband, TV vertical blanking interval, microwave, and paging networks. For WANs, two-way mobile satellite, very small aperture terminal (VSAT), pocket radio, and meteor-burst techniques exist. Various technologies have existed for use in voice and data communications. The following sections give an overview of each of them.

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